Background

The title "Bey" or "Beg" is deeply rooted in the Turkic world, with a rich cultural history and a complex system of governance. The origins of this title can be traced back to the rise of Turkic empires and kingdoms in Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, where it was used to address chieftains, rulers, and other high-ranking officials. The word "Bey" is derived from the Turkic word "beg," which means "master" or "lord."

Etymology

In the early centuries, the title was mainly used by the nomadic Turkic tribes who were organized into clans or confederations, where the "Bey" was the leader of the Tribe. As the Turkic people migrated and established empires, the title "Bey" evolved into a formal social title, and those who held the title were regarded as the elites of society.

The extent of power and prestige associated with the title varied from country to country, and no rigid system was applied universally. In some regions, the "Bey" was a hereditary ruler, while in others, the title was bestowed by the emperor or the Sultan as a reward for services rendered to the state. Sometimes, the "Bey" was a military commander or a provincial governor.

In modern times, the word "Bey" is still used as a formal social title for men, similar to the way "Sir" and "Mister" are used in the English language. It is widely used in the naming customs of Central Asia, particularly in countries such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. The usage of the word in personal names and even ethnic group names is also common, with the ethnic designation of Uzbeks being one such example, derived from the name of Öz Beg Khan of the Golden Horde.

The title "Bey" is an integral part of the cultural heritage of the Turkic people. The title reflects the importance of social hierarchy and respect for tradition and authority in the Turkic world and continues to be a significant part of the region's cultural identity.

"bey" or "beg" extends beyond just the Turkic world. In the Indian subcontinent, the title "begum" is still formal for women, particularly in Muslim communities. In ancient India, "beg" was a title for high-ranking officials, such as the "Begum of Bhopal," a Muslim state ruled by a female monarch in central India.

In Afghanistan, the title "Bey" or "Baig" is used as a surname and is associated with the Pashtun ethnic group. The title was believed to refer to a tribal leader or chief initially. Similarly, in Iran, the title "Bey" or "Baig" is used as a surname, particularly among the Azeri and Kurdish ethnic groups.

In the Balkans, the title "bay" refers to a high-ranking military official in the Ottoman Empire. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the title "beg" refers to a district or region governor or administrator. Today, the word "bay" is still used in some Balkan countries as a name or surname.

In Central Asia, particularly in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, the title "Bek" is used as a suffix in many personal names. For example, the name "Bekzod" is a combination of the Uzbek name "Zod" and the title "Bek," meaning "ruler" or "leader." Similarly, the name "Sardorbek" combines the Uzbek name "Sardor" with the title "Bek." The title "Bek" is also used as a surname in some Central Asian countries.

"Beylik" refers to a governorate or region governed by a "bey." Many areas across the Middle East and Central Asia have historical records that refer to their region as "beylik," such as the "Rumeli Beylerbeyliği" in Turkey, the "Kypchak Beyliks" in Ukraine, the "Khanate of Kazan Beylik" in Russia, and the "Beylik of Tarragona" in Spain.

The "bay" or "beg" in various languages and cultures demonstrates its widespread significance and importance. It reflects the historical and cultural connections between different regions and the influence of Turkic cultures in developing multiple languages.

Iran

Tughril Beg was a prominent leader of the Seljuk Empire, a medieval Muslim state that ruled much of Western and Central Asia from the 11th to the 14th centuries. He was born in 990 CE in modern-day Turkmenistan and rose to power as the chief of the Seljuk tribe.

Tughril Beg led his people on military campaigns, conquering much of Iran and Iraq and establishing the Seljuk Empire in 1037. He was given the title "Beg" by his people, which meant "chieftain" or "ruler." The Seljuk Empire was one of the most powerful and influential states of its time, and Tughril Beg's leadership played a significant role in its rise to power.

Under Tughril Beg's rule, the Seljuk Empire became known for its military prowess, strategic alliances with other Muslim states, and promotion of education and the arts. Tughril Beg was a patron of scholars, artists, and poets and helped establish centers of learning and culture in his empire.

Tughril Beg died in 1063 and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan. Despite his relatively short reign, Tughril Beg's leadership was instrumental in establishing and advancing the Seljuk Empire. His legacy as a great leader and patron of the arts and education continues to be celebrated in modern-day Middle East and Central Asia.

The title "bey" during the Seljuk Empire in Iran is well-documented, reflecting the influence of Turkic cultures in the region. Historical records indicate that the title was used as early as the 11th century to address high-ranking officials and chieftains. The Seljuk rulers, who were of Turkic origin, granted the title "bey" to individuals who showed exceptional loyalty and service to the state.

Tughril Beg, who served as the first Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, is one of the most prominent Beylerbeys of the Seljuk period. He ruled from 1038 to 1063 and was instrumental in expanding the empire's territory and consolidating its power in Iran and surrounding regions. Tughril Beg's successful military campaigns established the Seljuk Empire as a dominant force in the area and paved the way for the empire's subsequent expansion under his successors.

Other notable people of the Seljuk period included Nizam al-Mulk, a prominent Persian statesman and administrator who served as the vizier under the Seljuk Empire. He was born in 1018 CE in Tus, a city in northeastern Iran, and later became a student of the famous Persian scholar Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. In 1063, he was appointed the vizier or chief minister of the Seljuk Empire under Sultan Alp Arslan.

The Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan granted the title to Nizam al-Mulk and his successor Malik Shah I as a sign of respect and authority due to his prominent position as the vizier. As the vizier, Nizam al-Mulk was responsible for the administration of the Seljuk Empire, overseeing the state bureaucracy, and advising the Sultan on governance and policy matters.

Nizam al-Mulk was known for his administrative and legal reforms, including establishing madrasas or Islamic schools, which became centers of learning and scholarship throughout the Islamic world. He also wrote a treatise called "Siyasatnama" or "The Book of Government," which outlined his ideas on governance and politics and became a seminal work on political theory in the Islamic world.

Nizam al-Mulk's influence in the Seljuk Empire was significant, and his tenure as a vizier is often considered a period of stability and prosperity for the empire. However, his political and religious views were controversial, and he was assassinated in 1092 by a member of the radical Ismaili sect, which opposed his policies and reforms. Despite his untimely death, Nizam al-Mulk's legacy as a statesman, administrator, and scholar continue to be celebrated in Persian and Islamic history.

The following is a small sample of the many individuals who held the title "beg" or "bey" during the Seljuk Empire. Many others likely held the title at various times and in different regions of the empire:

1. Tughril Beg - founder of the Great Seljuq Empire and first Sultan of the Seljuk dynasty

2. Alp Arslan - second Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire

3. Malik Shah I - one of the most famous Seljuk sultans, known for his military campaigns and patronage of Persian culture

4. Nizam al-Mulk - Persian statesman and administrator under the Seljuk Empire

5. Sanjar - Seljuk sultan known for his military campaigns against the Khwarezmian Empire

6. Tughril III - last Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, who ruled from 1176 to 1194

7. Arslan Arghun - Seljuk prince who rebelled against his uncle, Sultan Sanjar

8. Atsiz ibn Uvaq - governor of Azerbaijan during the Seljuk period

9. Chavli - governor of Damascus during the Seljuk period

10. Kutalmışoglu Suleiman Shah - Seljuk ruler of Rûm in Anatolia

The title "bey" during the Seljuk period reflects the importance of military and administrative power during this period of Iranian history. Regional rulers, military commanders, and governors who held the title "bey" were responsible for maintaining order and upholding the authority of the Seljuk Empire. This legacy continued well into the Ottoman Empire and beyond, with the title "bey" continuing to be used as a mark of respect and honour in many parts of the Middle East and Central Asia.

The Timurid Empire was a Central Asian empire from the 14th to the 15th century, founded by the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur. The Turkic cultures of the region heavily influenced the Timurids, so the title "bey" or "beg" was commonly used in their empire.

For example, Ulugh Beg, a prominent Timurid ruler and the grandson of Timur, held the title of "beg" and was known as a scholar, astronomer, and mathematician. Similarly, Sultan Husayn Bayqara, another Timurid ruler, was also known as "Sultan Husayn Bayqara Beg" during his reign.

The Timurids also used the title "beg" in their administrative system. For instance, in the Timurid administrative hierarchy, the "beglarbeg" was a high-ranking official in charge of a province. At the same time, a "beg" was a lower-level official who served under the "beglarbeg."

The use of the title "bey" or "beg" in the Timurid Empire reflected the continued influence of Turkic cultures in the region and the importance of this title in their administrative and political systems.

After the decline of the Seljuk Empire, the use of the title "bey" or "beg" persisted in the succeeding empires that emerged in the region. The Timurid Empire was one such example, where many of its rulers held the title of "beg" or "bey" in addition to other prestigious titles. The Timurid Empire was known for its cultural and artistic achievements, and the use of the title "beg" or "bey" played a significant role in its social and political structures. For example, during Sultan Husayn Bayqara, known for his patronage of the arts and literature, many poets and scholars were granted the title of "beg" to recognize their contributions to the empire's cultural heritage.

Similarly, the Mughal Empire in India, which emerged in the 16th century, also used the title "beg" or "bey" in various contexts. The Mughal emperors were known for tolerating different cultures and religions, and the use of the title "beg" or "bey" reflected this diversity. For example, during the reign of Emperor Akbar, who was known for promoting religious harmony, many individuals from different religious backgrounds were granted the title of "beg" as a mark of their service to the empire.

In addition to its use in titles and honorifics, the term "bey" or "beg" also found its way into the names of individuals and places in the Timurid and Mughal Empires. For example, the famous Mughal emperor Jahangir had a son named Shahryar Mirza Beg, and the Timurid prince Ulugh Beg was known for his contributions to astronomy and mathematics.

During the Safavid Dynasty, several titles of "bey," "beg," "bayg," and "bek" were used to refer to high-ranking officials, governors, and regional rulers. Some of these titles include:

1. Beylerbey: The empire's highest-ranking military commander, overseeing all military affairs.

2. Beglerbegi: A high-ranking administrative official who oversaw multiple provinces or regions of the empire.

3. Emir Beg: A title given to a governor or prince who ruled a specific region or territory.

4. Mirza Beg: A title given to a prince or member of the royal family.

5. Khan Beg: A title given to a governor or prince of a specific region or territory.

6. Yuzbashilar Begi: A title given to the commander of a unit of 100 soldiers.

7. Kethuda Beg: A title given to a high-ranking administrative official who was responsible for overseeing the affairs of a specific region or city.

These titles reflect the diverse roles and responsibilities of individuals in the Safavid Dynasty and the importance of military and administrative power in maintaining the stability and prosperity of the empire. Several notable people received the title "bey" or "beg" during the Safavid Dynasty. Some of these individuals include:

1. Najaf Qoli Beg served as the governor of Shirvan and was a prominent military commander.

2. Hasan Beg Rumlu was a close advisor to Shah Ismail I and was crucial in establishing the Safavid Dynasty.

3. Gorgin Khan was a powerful courtier and governor of Azerbaijan.

4. Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu was a leading figure in the Safavid military and served as the governor of Fars.

5. Sultan Mahmud Khan Qushchi was the governor of Herat and a close confidant of Shah Abbas the Great.

6. Muhammad Zaman Beg, a leading Safavid military commander, played a crucial role in the wars against the Ottoman Empire.

7. Khan Baba Khan Jahanbani served as Azerbaijan's governor and was a critical figure for the Safavid court.

The use of the title "bey" or "beg" in these empires and their successor states reflects the enduring influence of Turkic cultures in the region and the significance of social hierarchies and cultural heritage in these societies.

During the Afsharid dynasty, which ruled Iran from 1736 to 1796, the title "bey" and its variants continued to be used in various contexts. The Afsharids were of Turkic origin and sought to revive the glory of the Persian Empire, which had declined after the fall of the Safavid dynasty. The title "bey" reflected the continued influence of Turkic cultures in Iran during this period.

The title "bey" addressed high-ranking officials, military commanders in the Afsharid court, regional governors, and chieftains. The title "begum" also addressed female royal court members. The areas ruled by governors with the title "bey" were referred to as "beyliks," similar to the usage during the Seljuk and Ottoman empires.

One of the notable figures during the Afsharid dynasty, which held the title "bey" was Nader Shah, who ruled from 1736 to 1747. Nader Shah was of Turkmen origin and rose to power through his military conquests. He was known for his military prowess and administrative reforms, and he granted the title "bey" to some of his most trusted generals and advisors.

Another notable figure during the Afsharid period who held the title "bey" was Mohammad Khan Qajar, who later founded the Qajar dynasty. He was appointed as the governor of Astarabad by Nader Shah and was granted the title "bey" for his services to the Afsharid state.

During the Afsharid Dynasty, several titles addressed high-ranking officials, military commanders, and governors. Some of the designations used during the Afsharid dynasty include:

1. Beglerbegi: A title for the governor of a province or region.

2. Kalantar: A title for a high-ranking official who served as a judge or administrator.

3. Amir al-umara: A title for commander-in-chief of the military.

4. Amir-e Nezam: A title for a high-ranking military commander.

5. Amir-i-Tuman: A title for a commander of 10,000 troops.

6. Sardar: A title for an army commander or general.

7. Arbab: A title for a wealthy landowner or merchant.

8. Mirza: A title for a nobleman or a royal family member.

9. Khan: A title for a high-ranking official or nobleman.

10. Bey or Beg: A title for a chieftain, governor, or high-ranking official, commonly used in Turkic cultures.

These titles were often combined to create compound titles that reflected the individual's rank and position within the government or military hierarchy. Some notable people who received the title "bey" or "beg" during the Afsharid Dynasty in Iran include:

1. Nadir Shah Afshar, founder and first ruler of the Afsharid Dynasty, who was initially appointed as the governor of Khorasan by the Safavid ruler.

2. Adil Shah, a nobleman who served as the governor of Fars province under Nadir Shah Afshar.

3. Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari, a military commander and statesman who served as the governor of several provinces in Iran, including Fars, Kerman, and Azerbaijan.

4. Ebrahim Khan Kalantar, a high-ranking official and governor of several provinces, including Gilan and Mazandaran.

5. Muhammad Khan Qajar, a member of the Qajar family who served as a governor and military commander under the Afsharid rulers.

6. Zaki Khan, a prominent military commander who served under several Afsharid rulers, including Nadir Shah and Adil Shah.

These are just a few examples of the many individuals who received the title "bey" or "beg" during the Afsharid Dynasty in Iran. The title addressed high-ranking officials, military commanders, and provincial governors.

The continued use of the title "bey" during the Afsharid dynasty reflects the ongoing influence of Turkic cultures in Iran and the continued importance of military and administrative power in the region. The title addressed individuals with significant power and authority in the Afsharid court and its various areas.

During the Zand Dynasty, which ruled from 1750 to 1794, the title "bey" or "beg" continued to be used for high-ranking officials and nobles, although it was not as prevalent as in previous dynasties.

The founder of the Zand Dynasty, Karim Khan Zand, was known for his humble origins and lack of formal titles. However, he did grant titles to some of his loyal supporters, including "beg" or "bey," to individuals who held important positions in his administration.

One notable example of a person who received the title of "beg" during the Zand Dynasty was Jafar Khan, who was appointed Fars province's governor. He was given the title "Bey-e Fars," which means "the Bey of Fars," in recognition of his influential position and service to the state.

Another example of a person who received the title "beg" during the Zand Dynasty was Najaf Quli Khan Bakhtiari, who served as the governor of Isfahan and was also a notable military commander. He was given the title "Bey-e Isfahan," or "the Bey of Isfahan," in recognition of his role in maintaining the security and stability of the region.

While using the title "bey" or "beg" during the Zand Dynasty was not as widespread as in previous dynasties, it still had significance as a title for high-ranking officials and nobles who served the state and held important positions in the administration.

During the Qajar Dynasty in Iran (1785-1925), the title "bey," "beg," "bayg," and "bek" continued to be used as a title of honour and respect for high-ranking officials and nobles. The Qajar rulers granted these titles to individuals who served the state or demonstrated exceptional loyalty.

The Beglarbegi title was one of the essential titles in the Qajar Dynasty, which ruled from 1785 to 1925. The title was given to high-ranking officials who held significant power and authority in the administration and military and were responsible for governing a large province or territory.

The Beglarbegi was appointed by the shah and held a position that was equivalent to the rank of governor-general or viceroy. They were responsible for managing the affairs of the state, overseeing the military, and ensuring that the population remained loyal to the Qajar Dynasty. The Beglarbegi was expected to be an experienced and accomplished leader who could manage the affairs of the state with competence and efficiency.

One of the most notable individuals to hold the Beglarbegi title was Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir, who served as the prime minister from 1848 to 1851. Amir Kabir was a highly respected statesman and played a crucial role in modernizing Iran during his office. He reorganized the government, improved the economy, and initiated many reforms that strengthened the country's infrastructure and institutions.

Another notable individual who held the Beglarbegi title was Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Sultan, who served as the prime minister from 1907 to 1909. Amin al-Sultan was a highly educated and accomplished politician who played a vital role in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran. He strongly advocated democracy and constitutionalism and worked tirelessly to promote political reforms and greater political freedoms.

The Beglarbegi title symbolized power and prestige in the Qajar Dynasty and was only given to the state's most accomplished and influential individuals. The title represented significant responsibility and authority, and those who held it were expected to be highly capable and accomplished leaders who could manage the affairs of the state with competence and efficiency.

Here is a list of some of the notable individuals who held the title of Beglarbegi in the Qajar Dynasty, along with their title, year, and significance:

1. Mohammad Khan Qajar - Governor-General of Azerbaijan Province (1794-1795) - He founded the Qajar dynasty and was one of the first to hold the title of Beglarbegi.

2. Fath-Ali Shah Qajar - Governor-General of Azerbaijan Province (1801-1810) - He was the second king of the Qajar dynasty and expanded the empire's territories.

3. Abbas Mirza - Crown Prince, Governor-General of Azerbaijan Province (1813-1823) - He was a prominent military commander and played a vital role in the modernization of Iran.

4. Mirza Abol-Qasem Qa'im-Maqam - Governor-General of Fars Province (1834-1847) - He was a prominent diplomat and statesman and played a vital role in the Anglo-Persian War.

5. Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir - Prime Minister, Governor-General of Fars Province (1848-1851) - He was a reformer and modernizer and played a crucial role in modernizing Iran.

6. Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Sultan - Prime Minister, Governor-General of Fars Province (1907-1909) - He was a prominent statesman and played a crucial role in the Constitutional Revolution.

7. Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh - Governor-General of Azerbaijan Province (1917-1921) - He was a member of the Qajar dynasty and served in various high-ranking positions in the government.

These individuals played significant roles in shaping the course of Iranian history and modernizing the country during their tenures in office.

During the Qajar Dynasty, the title "bey" or "beg" was used to address high-ranking officials, nobles, and local rulers. The title was one of the most prestigious titles bestowed upon individuals who served the state or showed exceptional loyalty. This practice continued throughout the dynasty and reflects the significance of nobility and high-ranking officials in the administration of the state.

The use of the title "bey" or "beg" during the Qajar Dynasty also reflects the continued influence of Turkic cultures in the region. The Qajar rulers had close ties with the Ottoman Empire and other Turkic kingdoms, and the title "bey" was already prominent in these cultures. The Qajar rulers granted titles to individuals who demonstrated exceptional loyalty or served the state, and "bey" or "beg" was among the most prestigious of these titles.

One notable individual who held the title of "bey" during the Qajar Dynasty was Amir Nezam Garrousi Beyg, also known as Abbas Mirza. He was the Crown Prince of Persia and a skilled military commander who played a significant role in the modernization of the Qajar military. Other high-ranking officials, governors, and nobles also held the title of "bey" during the Qajar Dynasty.

The title "bey" or "beg" in the Qajar Dynasty reflected the significance of nobility and high-ranking officials in the state's administration. It demonstrated the continued influence of Turkic cultures in the region. The title symbolized prestige and power and was bestowed upon individuals who served the state or showed exceptional loyalty to the Qajar dynasty.

The title of "Begzadeh" or "Baygzadeh" was a title of nobility during the Qajar dynasty in Iran, which ruled from 1785 to 1925. The title was reserved for the sons of beys or Beglarbegis, who were already members of the noble class. The title was granted to designate the son as an aristocratic class member and recognize the father's high social status.

The Begzadeh were among the elite of Qajar society and were considered to be a part of the noble class. They enjoyed significant privileges and prestige and often held high-ranking government, military, or court positions. They were expected to maintain their family's honour and reputation and contribute to the state's administration and modernization.

The title of Begzadeh was not limited to a specific region or province of the Qajar Dynasty and was used throughout Iran. Some notable individuals who held the title of Begzadeh during the Qajar dynasty include Prince Abdol-Hossein Mirza Farmanfarma, who served as the Minister of Post and Telegraph in the early 20th century played a significant role in the modernization of Iran.

The title of Begzadeh was an important symbol of social status and privilege in the Qajar Dynasty and was reserved for the sons of the highest-ranking members of the noble class. The Begzadeh played essential roles in the administration and modernization of the state and contributed to the continued influence of the noble class in Iranian society.

During the Pahlavi dynasty, which lasted from 1925 to 1979, the title "beg" or "bay" was not commonly used in the official titles of the government. However, the title "bey" was still used to address high-ranking officials and nobles, although it was not as prominent as in previous dynasties.

The Pahlavi dynasty sought to modernize Iran and move away from the traditional feudal structures of the past. As a result, the titles and honours granted to individuals were restructured, and new titles were created to reflect the changing social and political landscape.

During the Pahlavi era, the modern system of statehood was introduced in Iran, which included creating official records for births, deaths, and other events. This modernization led to the adoption of surnames to identify individuals and their families in official documents. The exact date of the birth registration system's modernization in Iran is still being determined, but it was likely implemented during the 20th century.

The adoption of surnames was a significant departure from the traditional naming practices in Iran, which relied on patronymics and personal characteristics to identify individuals—introducing surnames allowed for more efficient record-keeping and identification of individuals in the modern state.

However, despite the adoption of surnames, many families in Iran still rely on oral history and cultural transmission to trace their roots and family histories. This highlights the importance of preserving cultural traditions and practices in modernization and change.

Surnames in Iran often reflect an individual's place of origin, occupation, or other important personal or family characteristics. These surnames embed significant cultural codes about the past and future generations, reflecting Iran's rich and diverse cultures. They serve as a connection to family histories and cultural and historical roots and are an essential part of the country's identity and heritage.

The adoption of surnames during the Pahlavi era was a significant development in modernizing Iran's statehood. However, the continued reliance on oral history and cultural transmission highlights the importance of maintaining cultural traditions and practices in the face of change. Surnames in Iran reflect the rich and diverse cultures of the country and serve as an 

essential connection to family histories and the country's identity and heritage.

Turkey

The concept of "bey" or "beg" in Turkey has its roots in the Ottoman Empire. In the early days of the empire, the title "bey" refers to the rulers of smaller states or regions and is a mark of status and power. As the empire grew and became more centralized, the title was extended to military and administrative officials who served the central government.

The term "bey" is derived from the Turkish word "beylik," which means "principality" or "emirate." In the Ottoman Empire, the title was often combined with the name of the official's district or region to create a specific title, such as "Sanjak Bey" for a district administrator or "Kapudan Pasha" for the chief admiral of the Ottoman navy.

Over time, the title "bey" became less significant and was eventually reduced to an honorary title. It is still a mark of respect and a common part of traditional Turkish names. For example, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the modern Turkish republic, was known as "Atatürk," meaning "Father of the Turks." Still, he was also referred to as "Gazi Mustafa Kemal Bey" or "Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha."

The title "bey" or "beg" in Turkey reflects the importance of status and hierarchy in Turkish society. The Ottoman Empire was highly stratified, with clear distinctions between the ruling elite, the military, and the general population. Using titles like "bey" helped reinforce these distinctions and maintain social order.

In modern Turkey, titles like "bey" are less common as the official marker, but they still have significance in specific contexts. For example, it may be used to address someone with a high education or social status or as a mark of respect for someone who has achieved significant accomplishments in their field. The concept of "bey" or "beg" in Turkey is an integral part of the country's cultural heritage and reflects the historical and social dynamics of the Ottoman Empire.

Africa 

The title "bey" has had a significant historical and cultural role in Africa, particularly in North African countries such as Egypt, Sudan, and Tunisia. In these regions, the title of "bey" was used as a position equivalent to a rank below "pasha." The term "bey" was derived from the Turkish word "bayg" and was used to address high-ranking officials and nobles in the Ottoman Empire.

In the Barbaresque North African regency states, the title of "Bay" was used as the virtual sovereign's title. The Husainid Dynasty in Tunisia utilized various titles and styles, including "Bay." The title of "Bay" was not only part of the ruler's territorial title but was also used by all male family members, much like the title of "Sultan" in the Ottoman dynasty.

Different titles were assigned to specific family members, such as "Bay al-Kursi," meaning "Bay of the Throne," equivalent to the reigning prince. The title of "Bay al-Mahalla," meaning "Bay of the Camp," was used for the next senior member of the Beylical family after the reigning Bay, who was the Heir Apparent to the throne. The title of "Bay al-Taula," meaning "Bay of the Table," was given to the Heir Presumptive, who was the eldest prince of the Beylical family and enjoyed precedence immediately after the Bey al-Mahalla.

The title of "Beylerbeyi," meaning "Lord of Lords," was the administrative rank held by the ruler of Algiers and by the rulers of parts of the Balkans in their official capacity as Ottoman Governor-General within the Turkish empire. This title was also used in the Safavid Empire.

In Nigeria, during the declining years of the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan bestowed the title of "bey" upon Oloye Mohammed Shitta, a prominent African merchant prince of the Yoruba people and a leader of the Muslim community in the Kingdom of Lagos. As a result, he and his descendants came to be known in Nigeria by the double-barrelled surname Shitta-Bey, which continues to be passed down through their lineal descendants.

During the Ottoman period, the rulers of the semi-autonomous Mani Peninsula region used the title of "beys." For instance, Petros Mavromichalis was known as "Petrobey." In some cases, beys saw their Beylik, or small state, elevated to statehood status, such as Qusantina, a district under the Algiers regency since 1525, which had its own beys since 1567. The last incumbent, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, could keep his title even after the local Kabyle population declared independence in 1826 and France conquered the area on October 13, 1837. Qusantina was eventually incorporated into Algeria in 1848.

In modern times, the title "bey" has lost its official capacity in many African countries. Still, it continues to be used in a historical context, reflecting the region's rich cultural heritage and traditions.

Caucasus

The title "Bey" or its variations have been utilized as a noble title across various Turkic states, including the Caucasus region. In the North Caucasus highlands, the Balkar princes were known as "taubiy" or "taubey," meaning the mountainous chief. In the Avar Khanate, the title "Bey" addressed local nobles and officials. The term "beg" was used in the Derbent Khanate and other Caucasian Muslim states to denote a high-ranking noble.

In the Caucasus, the title "Bek" was used as well. In the Tatar Khanate of Kazan, the title "Bäk" was given to the person in charge of the "Bäklek" Beylik. The Uzbek Khanate of Khiva, the Emirate of Bukhara, and the Khanate of Kokand utilized "beks" as local administrators of their respective provinces or "bekliks."

In the early modern period, the Safavid dynasty of Iran also utilized the title "Bey" or "Bayg" for their local rulers in the Caucasus. These rulers, known as "Beylerbeys," were responsible for governing large regions of the Safavid Empire and were often members of the local nobility. The title "Bayg" was also used by the Karabakh Khanate, a medieval state in the Caucasus, to denote high-ranking officials and military leaders.

In modern times, the name variation of "Beg," "Baig," or "Bai" is commonly used as a part of a surname in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Balkans. It can be found with the Slavic suffixes -ov, -ović, or -ev, which denote "son of." This can be seen in names such as Bakir, Alija Izetbegović, and Abai Kunanbaev.

The title "Bey," "Bayg," "Bek," and their derivatives have been significant markers of social status and nobility in the Caucasus region throughout history. They have been used to address local rulers, nobles, and officials and are still present in the surnames and cultural traditions of the area.

Balkan

The use of the Slavic suffixes "-ov," "-ović," or "-ev" to signify "son of" is a common practice in many Slavic-influenced cultures, including those in the Balkans and the Baltics. This practice reflects the patrilineal nature of these societies, in which family names and lineage are traced through the male line. The suffixes are added to the father's name to create a surname for the child, emphasizing the importance of the father's role in the family.

The name "Bay" is a common first name or a part of a surname in Balto-Slavic cultures. The name is often found with the Slavic suffixes "-ov," "-ović," or "-ev," which signify "son of." The suffixes reflect the same patrilineal lineage concept, as the child's family name is derived from the father's name. Sometimes, the name "Bay" may be used as a nickname or a shortened version of a longer name.

The North Caucasus is located in southern Russia, bordering the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and Georgia. The area is home to numerous ethnic groups and has a complex conflict and cultural exchange history. One of the ethnic groups in the region is the Balkars, who live primarily in the Kabardino-Balkaria republic of Russia.

The title "taubiy" or "taubey" was used by the Balkar princes in the North Caucasus to denote the leader or chief of a mountainous region. The term is derived from the word "taua," which means "mountain" in the Balkar language. The "taubiy" was responsible for governing and protecting the people living in their region and representing them in diplomacy and war.

The Balkar people have a rich history and culture, which includes traditional practices such as cattle breeding, beekeeping, and rug weaving. The title "taubiy" is just one example of how the unique geography and history of the North Caucasus region have shaped the culture of the Balkars.

Russia

In Russia, the name "Bay" is often found with the suffix "-ov," as in the surname "Baykov." In Serbia, the term "Bay" may be seen with the suffix "-ev," as in the surname "Bayević." In Ukraine, the name "Bay" may be found with the suffix "-enko," as in the surname "Bayenko." 

In Tatarstan, a republic within the Russian Federation, the title "Bey" holds a significant historical and cultural value, particularly among the majority Tatar population. Historically, the title "Bey" was used to refer to the nobility or aristocracy in Tatarstan, who were recognized for their political and military power. These nobles, who ruled over their respective regions, were known as "Beylik," which translates to "Beydom" or "Beyship."

During the Russian Empire era, the title of "Bey" was often granted to those Tatar aristocrats loyal to the tsarist regime. After the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union, the title was abolished, along with other noble titles. However, in the post-Soviet era, the Tatar people and other ethnic groups within Russia began to reclaim their cultural heritage, including using the "Bey" title.

Today, the title "Bey" is still used as an honorific for leaders of Tatar organizations and other important figures in Tatarstan. It is also used by some descendants of Tatar nobility who continue to hold it as a hereditary title. These individuals are recognized for contributing to Tatar culture, history, and society.

In the historical context of Dagestan, the title "bey" or "beg" was used to denote a local aristocracy that emerged during the medieval period. These beys were the ruling class of various principalities and tribes in the region and held significant political and military power. The beys were often responsible for maintaining order and resolving disputes within their respective communities and acted as intermediaries between their communities and the Russian Empire.

The beys of Dagestan played a significant role in the region's history, particularly during the Caucasian War in the 19th century. Many beys led resistance movements against the Russian Empire and fought to maintain their autonomy and independence. One of the most notable beys of this period was Imam Shamil, who led the resistance against the Russian Empire for over 25 years.

Despite the eventual defeat of the resistance movements, the legacy of the beys in Dagestan continues to be significant. The title "bey" is still used in the region as a name or surname and is seen as a symbol of the region's history and cultural heritage. Additionally, the traditional values and customs associated with the beys, such as bravery, honour, and loyalty, continue to be celebrated and respected in Dagestani society.

 Here is a list of ethnic groups, tribes, and regions in Russian history that have used the title in social, political and cultural contexts:

1. Kazan Tatars - In Tatarstan, a republic within the Russian Federation with a majority Tatar population, the title "Bey" is still used as an honorific for leaders of Tatar organizations and other important figures. The title is also used by some descendants of Tatar nobility who continue to hold it as hereditary.

2. Crimean Tatars - The Crimean Tatars are a Turkic ethnic group that historically lived on the Crimean Peninsula. The title "Bey" was commonly used among Crimean Tatars to denote a chieftain or leader of a community.

3. Bashkirs - The Bashkirs are a Turkic ethnic group indigenous to Bashkortostan, a republic within the Russian Federation. In Bashkortostan, the "Bey" title is recognized as an essential part of the region's cultural heritage. It is used to honour and recognize the contributions of the Bashkir people to Russian society.

4. Karachays - The Karachays are a Turkic ethnic group living in the North Caucasus region of Russia. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

5. Kalmyks - The Kalmyks are a Mongolic ethnic group living in the Republic of Kalmykia in the Russian Federation. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

6. Avars - The Avars are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group living in the Russian Federation. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

7. Chechens - The Chechens are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group living in the North Caucasus region of Russia. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

8. Kumyks - The Kumyks are a Turkic ethnic group living in the Dagestan Republic of the Russian Federation. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

9. Dargins - The Dargins are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group living in the Russian Federation. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

10. Ingush - The Ingush are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group living in the North Caucasus region of Russia. The title "Bey" was historically used to refer to local administrative officers and military governors.

Kurdistan

The title "beg" or "bey" has a significant cultural and historical significance in Kurdish regions and cultures. It was used to refer to tribal chiefs and leaders responsible for their respective regions' administration and protection. These leaders were also responsible for resolving disputes and maintaining social order within their communities. In Kurdish history, the "beg" or "bey" title was associated with the ruling class and nobility.

During the Ottoman Empire, "beg" refers to local administrative officers and military governors in Kurdish regions. Later, during the Qajar dynasty, the title "beg" was used as a courtly title for officials and nobility in the Kurdish areas of Iran.

The "beg" or "bey" title continues in modern-day Kurdistan and Kurdish regions. In Iraqi Kurdistan, for example, the title "beg" is still a courtesy title for tribal leaders and a sign of respect for elders and essential community members. Kurdish politicians and officials in Turkey often use the title "beg" to symbolize Kurdish identity and cultural heritage.

In the context of the Kurdish tribes and clans, the title "beg" was used to signify one's tribal affiliation and was often passed down through family lines. This tradition has continued in modern times, with many Kurdish families still holding on to their ancestral "beg" titles as a symbol of their family history and social status.

The "bay" or "bek" title was also used in Kurdish regions, particularly the Caucasus region. For example, the Balkar princes in the North Caucasus were known as "taubiy" or "taubey," meaning the mountainous chief. Using these titles served as a way of signifying one's social status and importance within the community.

The title "beg" has been used in various literary works and poems in Kurdish literature. The famous Kurdish poet and writer Ahmad Khani used the title "beg" in his works to refer to noble and heroic characters. Similarly, the title has been used in other Kurdish literary works to signify nobility and honour.

The title holds significant cultural and historical significance in Kurdish regions and cultures. It serves as a reminder of the traditional social and political structures that have existed in the area for centuries and continue to play an essential role in modern Kurdish society.

Begzadeh

The titles Begzade (Kurdish), Beyzade (Turkic), Begzadići (Slavic), Beizadea (Romanian), and Begzadi (female) were commonly used within the Ottoman Empire to denote the descendants of noble households who held important positions, such as provisional governors and military generals. These individuals were considered superiors within Ottoman society and held significant authority.

In Western accounts, the term "Beyzade" was often used to refer to these individuals and their positions of power. Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, and certain parts of Anatolia and Iraqi Kurdistan, the title of Beyzade was given to Circassian princes who played a crucial role in the Ottoman conquest of these regions.

In Iran, the Begzaades were a caste that originated in Kurdistan and consisted of members of influential tribes and households, such as the Jafs, Khoshnaws, Feylis, and Berwaris. The Begzade were considered the dominant class of their Tribe or household, and they tended not to intermarry with those from socially inferior tribes. However, someone could become a part of the Begzade caste through familial ties to the ruling lineage and by being a member of the retainer group. Despite being considered Kurds, the Begzade were actually comprised of people with a mixed ethnic background, as many had Circassian roots.

These titles not only reflected the social status and power of the individual, but also signified the close connection between the Ottoman Empire and the noble households and the role they played in shaping the empire's history. The use of these titles also reflected the cultural diversity and linguistic pluralism of the Ottoman Empire, which was home to various ethnic and linguistic groups, including Kurds, Turks, Slavs, and Circassians.

The Bagzaadehs of Iran

Bagzaadeh is the name of a large and widely spoken Kurdish group in northern Iran and some regions of Iraqi Kurdistan. The Bagzaadehs are among the largest and most influential Kurdish groups in Iran, Turkey, Iraq, and Syria.

The origin of the Bagzaadeh Kurds has yet to be well known. The roots and heritage of the Bigzadeh Kurds in Iran and Iraq are common. According to the oral traditions of the Tāyšaʾi branch, some members of Bagzaades in Iran were originally Christians and came from Armenia. 

Some historians, who travelled to Iran in 1906-1907, wrote about the Iranian Bagzaade Kurds: Their relation to the Pirbodagh, the son of the founder of Savojbolagh, the ruler of the Mukri Kurds in Azerbaijan, is considered. Pirbodagh had two sons named Abdulaziz Sultan and Abdullah Bayg. The descendants of Abdulaziz became citizens, and the followers of Abdullah Bayg were known as Bagzaadehs and spread in the mountains. Until the mid-13th/19th century, the Bagzaadeh Kurds were the leaders and chiefs of the Mukri Kurds and the rulers of Savojbolagh Azerbaijan. 

The Bagzaadeh Kurds of Iran and Iraq are mostly linked to "Zaher Bayg," the founder of Muradi Jafs. The first emirs and chiefs of the Jaf tribes are said to have descended from them. Zaher Bayg and a group of Jaf Kurds defeated in the war with the Ardalan Wali migrated from Iran to Bani Khelan near the western edge of Iraqi Kurdistan, under the protection of the Kurdish pasha. Gradually, the Bagzaadeh Kurds took over the leadership of the Jaf Kurds of Iran and Iraq by defeating the local Kurdish tribes. In this period, the Bigzadeh Kurds, through their influence among the Il-e Jaf and other tribes, brought the most powerful emirs among the Kurdish tribes of Iraq and Iran to light.

Valadbaygi

The Valadbaygi tribe is an indigenous group of people hailing from the Zagros mountain range in the region of Avroman, also known as Hawraman, the "Territory of the Sun." This Tribe is known for their stewardship of the Avroman's ecological ecosystem and social fabric, which holds a rich cultural and religious heritage. The Avroman region has a long history dating back to pre-historic times and has played an essential role in the development of ancient religions, including the Yarsan faith, which is still practiced today, as well as Zoroastrianism, which has diminished in the region but is still preserved by small communities. This rich cultural and religious heritage is what sets the Valadbaygi tribe apart and highlights their significance in the history of the region.

The Valadbaygi Tribe are the Jaf Bagzaadehs of Avroman, renowned for their bravery and wisdom throughout history. The Jaf Bagzaadehs of Avroman possesses a unique ancestry that sets them apart from other Kurdish clans. They trace their roots back to the Pishdadian dynasty and its legendary king, Tahmures, an ancient line of primordial kings featured in Zoroastrian belief and Persian mythology. 

The Jaf Bagzaadehs of Avroman, including the Valadbaygi Tribe, trace their ancestry to Tahmures, the son of Hushang. Tahmures was known for his bravery and wisdom and was able to subdue Ahriman's demons through magic and force. The demons taught him the art of writing in thirty different scripts, which he used to invent various skills to improve the lives of humans. Tahmures was a great inventor of arts and is credited with creating the spinning and weaving of wool, domesticating animals, storing fodder for livestock, and training animals like dogs and falcons to hunt for people.

The Tribe's association with the Pishdadian dynasty reinforces their distinct cultural identity and rich historical heritage. The connection to Tahmures, known for his bravery and wisdom, highlights the Tribe's place in the rich tapestry of Iranian history and emphasizes the significance of their heritage and legacy. The discovery and preservation of the Tappeh Darakeh Valadbaygi site serve as a reminder of the Tribe's important role in the region and the cultural heritage they have helped to maintain.

Kardêwa

The ancient name of the people of western Iran was Kardê, Kardêyi, or Kardêwa. The region of Hawraman in modern-day Iran was one of their settlements. According to archaeological research, the roots of these people date back to around 8000 BCE, in the Jowzdan Mountains of Ararat, where the first inhabitants of western Iran lived along the Zagros mountain range. They were initially nomadic but, over time, became settled in one place. Later, they established the first ancient Iranian government, the Great Gotian Empire, and built the first cities of ancient Iran, including Dinur, Halvan, Emadiyeh, and Shahr-e Zoor. After their decline, the Huryan people, who were their descendants, founded another civilization in western Iran. 

Around 3000 BCE, the ancient Kardê peoples mixed with the Medes, who migrated to western Iran, and the Great Median Empire was established in Iran. The Kardê, Kardêyi, or Kardêwa were among the peoples of this area, and some of them lived in the Hawraman region then. They settled together long after their ancestors did. The Hawraman region did not have its name before the Safavid era and before the arrival of Islam in this area. Each part of this area had its unique character, and there was no common name for the entire region, such as Hawraman, which is commonly used today. 

It is unclear exactly when the Kardê, Kardêyi, or Kardêwa people settled together and became sedentary. However, the region's name has been found on Avroman Inscription, an Assyrian tablet dating back to the second millennium BCE. According to the inscription and other historical records, it is believed that the people of the Avroman region were settled as one of the earliest sedentary communities in human civilizations.

The Avroman Stone Inscription is a well-known artifact that dates back to the 2nd millennium BCE. It is a rock carving on a cliff in the Teng-i-War narrow passage, located around 45 km northwest of the village of Tengiwar in the Avroman region. The inscription is written in cuneiform and the ancient Assyrian language. It details the victories of the Assyrian gods, including Ashur, Marduk, Nabu, Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar, and their relationship with the region's people.

Furthermore, the inscription mentions the "Sargon II" campaign in the region of the Zagros Mountains. The text refers to the conquest and destruction of various cities, villages, and territories in the area, previously under the control of the Medes, Elamites, and some local kings. The inscription also provides a glimpse into the military tactics, the route taken by the army, and the role played by the region's people in the campaign.

Therefore, the Avroman Stone Inscription provides a valuable source of information about the ancient history of the Avroman region and the role of the Assyrians in the area. It is a testament to the region's rich cultural heritage and its significant contributions to the history of the ancient world.

Atur

The discovery of an ancient Assyrian inscription has shed light on the history of a city named "Atur" and its inhabitants, the "Kardêwa," who were fire-worshippers. The inscription was written in Assyrian cuneiform and mentioned the Assyrians conquering the city of Atur, located in the Zagros Mountains.

Scholars have attempted to locate Atur. By studying ancient names of regions, mountains, and plains in the Kermanshah and Kurdistan regions of Iran, they have suggested that the site could be located in Aturgeh, near Paveh, between the villages of Banora and Zardui. This theory is supported by the presence of a mountain called Atashgah (fire temple) in the vicinity of Banora, indicating that the fire-worshipping (Zoroastrian) people mentioned in the inscription could have lived in this area.

It is believed that the ancient inhabitants of the current Avroman region were the people who lived in the city of Atur, now located near Paveh. Their ancestors were the earliest settlers in the Avroman region, and the people of that region, who primarily reside in Kermanshah today, are their descendants. They are the oldest known sedentary inhabitants of the Avroman region.

This discovery provides valuable insight into the history and culture of the Avroman region and contributes to our understanding of the development of human civilization in the area. It is an example of how studying ancient inscriptions and geographical features can provide clues to uncovering the past and enriching our knowledge of history.

Avroman

The Avroman or Hawraman region is located in western Iran and northern Iraq, spanning the provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah in Iran and the Kurdistan Region in Iraq. The area is characterized by its mountainous terrain and the unique ways its inhabitants have adapted to this environment, such as tiered steep-slope planning, gardening on dry-stone terraces, and seasonal migration patterns. The Hawrami Kurdish people are known for their distinctive culture and way of life.

Hawraman is the region of Ahooramzda. The name "Hawraman" is derived from the combination of two words, "Hawra," meaning "Ahoora," and "Man," meaning "house, position." It is believed to represent the "Territory of the Sun." The Avroman region holds significant historical and religious significance, as it is home to the practice of ancient religions, including the Yarsan faith. There is speculation among scholars that the name "Hawraman" or "Huraman" may have roots in the ancient Zoroastrian faith, specifically in the deity Ahura Mazda. This connection is supported by the fact that the name "Ahuraman" or "Ahura Mazda" is derived from the Avestan language, the language of the ancient Indo-Iranian Zoroastrian faith. While the practice of Zoroastrianism has diminished in the region, small communities still preserve this ancient religion. Additionally, many areas in Avroman are believed to have been pilgrimage sites for Zoroastrians before the arrival of Islam.

The "Oraman Takht" village in the center of the Oraman district is considered a cultural and historical significance hub. It is the site of the annual "Pir Shaliar" ceremony and is believed to have been a large city and the center of government in ancient times. The region has a rich cultural heritage steeped in ancient Iranian religious traditions, including the teachings of the Zoroastrian religion.

The Hawraman region is known for its diverse wildlife, including the Persian leopard, brown bear, mouflon, wolf, and wild goat. The Buzin and Markhil Protected Area, located southwest of Hawraman in the Paveh and Javanrud counties of Kermanshah province, is dedicated to preserving these species. Hunting and shooting are prohibited in this area, officially designated as a protected area in 1999.

Avroman is also known for its numerous springs and rivers, including the Bil spring, which has a discharge rate of 3000-4000 litres per second and is the source of the world's shortest river, measuring just 15 meters in length. The construction of the Darian Dam on the Sirwan River led to the discovery of many archaeological sites through the Darian Dam Archaeological Salvage Program. In 2021, a portion of the Hawraman region was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as the "Cultural Landscape of Hawraman/Uramanat." 

Tahmures

The Valadbaygi Tribe, consisting of Bagzaadeh Jafs of Avroman, traces its lineage back to the legendary Pishdadian dynasty's king, Tahmures, known for his bravery and sagacity. The connection to Tahmures, part of Iranian mythology and Zoroastrian belief, reinforces the Tribe's unique cultural identity and rich historical heritage. The Valadbaygi Tribe's reference to such ancient beliefs highlights their place in the vast tapestry of Iranian history and emphasizes the significance of their heritage and legacy.

The Pishdadian dynasty, founded by Kayumars, is steeped in Persian mythology and Zoroastrian belief. According to the Shahnameh, a renowned epic poem written in the 11th century, the Pishdadian dynasty ruled Iran before the historical Achaemenids. Their reign is believed to have lasted for over two millennia. The Pishdadian dynasty's kings, presented as rulers of the world, fought against demons to improve the lives of human beings. Jamshid, a famous Pishdadian king, is credited with establishing the elements of civilization but was eventually overthrown by the evil Zahhak. After a popular uprising, the Pishdadian dynasty regained its throne, but its subsequent reign was marked by internal conflicts and wars, ultimately leading to its downfall.

The Pishdadian legends were retold by the Muslim historian Tabari, who incorporated Islamic lore and the stories of Quranic figures into the narratives. Despite having no historical foundation, the tales of the Pishdadian dynasty have had a significant cultural and political impact on Iranian society. Throughout history, ruling dynasties have claimed descent from the Pishdadians to enhance their legitimacy. The tales of the Shahnameh continue to play a central role in Iranian culture and national identity.

Kayani Tribe

Historical documents reveal the rich and fascinating legacy of the Kayani Tribe, a tribe that lived in the Paveh region. Kayani Tribe was known for its exceptional skills in archery, horsemanship, and military tactics, which earned them a reputation for courage and strength. The Kayani Tribe is frequently mentioned in the surviving written records from the Achaemenid period. They lived in Nuryab, Mirabad, and Dile, which they owned.

However, the Kayani Tribe faced many difficulties and setbacks throughout their history, including exile from their native lands to different parts of Iran. Despite this, their descendants in the Confederation of the Jaf Tribes re-settled in the Paveh area in Nuryab and continued their legacy. Today, the Valadbaygi Tribe of the Avroman Jafs primarily resides in the Nuryab region in Paveh, the ancestral home of the Kayani Tribe. The village's name is believed to have been derived from a cotton-spinning machine used by the Kayani weavers in ancient times to weave the best linen called Halveh. The machine was called "Nur-Yab," and it was chosen as the name for the village as a symbol of the artisanship of the Kayani Tribe in the Confederation of old civilizations.

The Kayani Tribe has played an essential role in the history and culture of the Paveh region, and their legacy continues to this day. The Tribe's prominence during the Achaemenid period and its enduring influence on the Jaf Tribes' culture and traditions highlight their importance and significance in the region's history. Additionally, the Kayani Tribe's unique skills in archery, horsemanship, and military tactics are still remembered and celebrated, demonstrating their lasting impact on the region's cultural heritage.

The Kayanians was a legendary dynasty in Persian/Iranian tradition and folklore that were said to have ruled after the Pishdadians. The Kayanian kings are considered heroes of the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, and the Shahnameh, the national epic of Greater Iran. 

The word "Kayanian" is derived from the Avestan language and refers to a group of legendary kings in ancient Iran. The term is composed of the word "Kavi," which means "king" and "poet-sacrificer" or "poet-priest." It is similar to the concept of "philosopher-king" in Western philosophy. The Kayanian kings were regarded as having divine royal glory and were depicted as offering sacrifices to the god Ahura Mazda to gain strength in their struggles against their enemies.

The legends of the Kayanian kings first appeared in the Yashts of the Avesta, a collection of hymns and prayers that praise various deities in Zoroastrianism. The Kayanian dynasty is said to have predated the Achaemenid dynasty and lasted for over 1,000 years. The Khwaday-Namag, or "Book of Lords," is a historiography of the Iranian nation from the primordial Gayomart to the reign of Khosrow II, with events arranged according to the perceived sequence of kings and queens.

Despite the decline of the Kayanian legends after the rise of Islam in the region, they experienced a revival under the Samanids. The Samanids were a Persian dynasty that ruled from 819 to 999 and promoted the Persian language, literature, and culture. The best-known work of the genre is Firdowsi's Shahnameh or "Book of Kings." The Shahnameh is an epic poem written in Persian that tells the story of Iran's pre-Islamic history, including the reigns of the Kayanian kings. The work is regarded as a masterpiece of Persian literature and has significantly impacted Iranian culture and identity development.

Nuryab

Nur-Yab (also spelled as Nuryab or Noor Yab) is a small village located in the Paveh County of Kermanshah Province in western Iran. It is situated on the western slopes of the Zagros Mountains, close to the border with Iraq. The village has a rich history that is closely tied to the ancient Zoroastrian beliefs of the indigenous tribes that once inhabited the region.

According to local beliefs, the village's name is derived from the nearby mountain called Nur, which is said to glimmer in the sunlight, creating an aura of brightness and light. The name "Nur-Yab" itself means "light explorer," reflecting the Zoroastrian beliefs of the indigenous tribes that lived in the region. The area beneath the Nur mountain, where the sunlight from every angle creates a bright, holy atmosphere, is called Nuryab.

The village is located in a region that has a long history of resistance against invaders. The story of Atur is an example of the region's long-standing fight against foreign invasion. According to the story, the Iranians fought against the Assyrian invasions into Iran. The Iranian army settled on the Nur mountain, which is located on top of Paveh, in order to defend Iranian territories and launch counter-attacks.

Today, Nur-Yab is a small, peaceful village with a population of approximately 800 people. It is a popular destination for tourists who are interested in the region's rich history and natural beauty. Visitors can enjoy scenic views of the surrounding mountains and valleys, explore the village's traditional architecture, and learn more about the area's Zoroastrian heritage.

The philosophy of light has had a profound impact on the region's culture, and Nur-Yab is no exception. Legendary Iranian philosophers integrated the philosophy of light into transcendence philosophy and illumination philosophy, defining an Iranian version of the philosopher king based on light and love. This philosophy emphasized the importance of enlightenment and was believed to inspire people to bring about positive change in the world.

Myths and Realities

The legendary dynasties of Shahnameh, such as the Pishdadian and Kayanian dynasties, have played a significant role in shaping Iran's history, culture, and national identity. Despite having no historical basis, these dynasties' stories have profoundly impacted Iranian society. They have been woven into the country's political and cultural fabric for centuries.

The Pishdadian and Kayanian dynasties are believed to have ruled Iran for over two thousand years before the historical Achaemenids. The Shahnameh tells the stories of their kings and their battles against evil forces, demons, and enemies to protect the people and establish civilization. These stories provide a symbolic narrative of Iran's past and its struggles against tyranny and oppression and reflect the importance of heroism, courage, and justice in Iranian culture.

The impact of these dynasties can be seen throughout Iran's history. Ruling dynasties have claimed descent from the Pishdadians and Kayanians to bolster their legitimacy, while poets, writers, and artists have drawn inspiration from these legendary figures to create their works. The stories of the Shahnameh have also served as a source of national pride and identity, with Iranians using the tales to connect with their shared history and culture.

Behistun and Taq-e Bostan are important historical sites crucial to Iranian history and culture. These sites provide valuable evidence of human activities in the Kermanshah region since the beginning of human civilization, linking the legendary dynasties of Shahnameh with real-world events and people.

Behistun's inscription is a declaration by Darius the Great, the third king of the Achaemenid Empire, containing valuable information about the empire's administrative and political structure, the wars fought by Darius to establish his rule, and the languages spoken during that time. The inscription provides tangible evidence of the historical events mentioned in the Shahnameh and a more tangible link between the legendary dynasties and real-world events. It also sheds light on the Achaemenid Empire's political and administrative structure, providing insight into how the empire was organized and governed.

Taq-e Bostan's rock reliefs depict various scenes from the Sassanian Empire, including hunting, fighting battles, and performing religious rituals. The rock reliefs provide us with valuable information about the Sassanian kings' lives and activities, as well as their religious beliefs and practices. Taq-e Bostan is evidence of the real-world events mentioned in the Shahnameh.

These two sites provide a tangible link between the legendary dynasties of Shahnameh and real-world events, making it easier for us to understand Iranian culture and history. They allow us to see how the people in the region lived, how they organized themselves politically, and their cultural and religious practices.

Mount Behistun is a prominent peak in the Zagros mountain range located in the Kermanshah province of western Iran, close to the border with Iraq. The mountain, rising to an elevation of 1,500 meters, is a significant part of the Bisotun Protected Area. The area surrounding Mount Behistun is characterized by rugged, mountainous terrain and a dry, arid climate. Despite these harsh conditions, the region is home to several important historical and natural sites.

Mount Behistoun hosts Taq-e Bostan and Bisotun inscriptions providing crucial insights into the Achaemenid Empire's political and administrative structure. These sites offer evidence of the region's complex and diverse history and reflect the integral role of the area's first nations in shaping Iranian history, culture and identity.

The natural reserves surrounding Mount Behistun are also notable, including the Zagros Oak Forests, part of the more extensive Hyrcanian forest system. These forests provide essential habitats for various plant and animal species. The Zagros Oak Forests extend to the northern coast of the Behistun protected area and run through the Valadbaygi Hill in Ravansar. The hill is an important site for understanding the early human settlements in the area. The first people of the region, including the Valadbaygi Tribe, lived in the area since the Middle Paleolithic period. By studying the region's history and connection to the legendary dynasties of Shahnameh, we can better understand how ancient tribes shaped Iranian culture and identity.

Understanding the region's history and cultural heritage is essential for preserving and promoting Iran's identity and national pride. The Valadbaygi Hill's official recognition as a national artifact of Iran, with registration number 10153, is a testament to its importance and the role of the Valadbaygi Tribe in shaping the region's history. It also supports the mythical and oral history of the Tribe in tracing their ancestry to Pishdadian and Kayanian values.

The evolution of advanced societies and governance models in pre-historic Iran and the Zagros region can be traced through the rise of various tribes and civilizations, such as the Mannaeans, Kassites, Gutians, and Lullubi. These societies developed complex political and economic systems, including the establishment of centralized governments, legal codes, and trade networks. They also left behind impressive architectural and artistic achievements, such as the ziggurats and monumental statues found at sites like Susa and Khuzestan. These early societies set the foundation for the development of more advanced political systems and the emergence of the Persian Empire, which would go on to have a significant impact on the region's history and culture.

Valadbaygi Region

The Valadbaygi Tribe is rooted in a rich cultural heritage that dates back to the pre-historic era of Iran, also known as the ancient history of Iran- encompassing a significant period from the Lower Paleolithic period and the Old Stone Age to the rise of the Elipi confederation to the Medes Empire, and to the end of the Sasanian Empire. It is a testament to the Valadbaygi Tribe's historical significance and resilience. The Tappeh Darakeh Valadbaygi site in the Avroman region, Ravansar, dates back to the pre-history era and is a crucial artifact of ancient times, reflecting the Tribe's connection to various nations and beliefs lived under Kay culture.

The Valadbaygi Hills, located in the Zagros Mountains and the northern coast of the Bisotun Protected Area, has a rich history dating back to the beginning of human life between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The hill has been a seasonal refuge for the historical peoples of Iran's Confederacy of Ancient Tribes since the time of the Sumer and Elam civilizations, up to the Achaemenid era and the present day.

Valadbaygi Hills are important historical sites and registered national heritage sites of Iran. They serve as a habitat for the indigenous peoples of the region, who have been of interest to the peoples and cultures of Iran since the beginning of the Tribal Confederacy. The Confederacy of Il-e Valadbaygi has a long-standing historical presence in the central regions of the triangle of Paveh, Sahneh, and Sar-e Pol-e Zahab and all the border areas between Iran and Iraq from Halabja to Kalar, and Xanqin. Here, the people of ancient kingdoms, with their unique names, cultures, and histories, have lived with other tribes, such as the Il-e Guran, Kalhor, Malekshahi, Qubadi and Sanjabi in different eras and have a historical coexistence and link with other western Iranian tribes.

Although the name Valadbaygi was introduced in the Seljuk period and became integral part of local governance in the Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties in Iran, the people of ancient tribal confederacies have a historical presence and caregiver role throughout this territory dating back to vassal systems and autonomous decentralized governance. The common feature of the region's generations, peoples, and rulers is their resilience in Iranian identity principles, which are based on light (Nur), love, mysticism, and art. It has been narrated from the Avroman Inscription from the time of the Assyrians to the Anahita Temple in Kangavar and the Bisotun Inscription and Taq-e Bostan in Kermanshah.

The philosophical approach of the Avroman cultures reached its peak with the emergence of the Seljuk Shahs, who considered themselves from the mythical Iranian dynasty of Kayanian and reached its climax as the “Hikmat-e Khosrawani," known as transcendence philosophy. This work laid the foundations for diversity, mysticism, and transformation in the ancient local culture of the region, which has been influenced by it to this day. The Valadbaygi Hills are essential testaments to the region's rich and diverse history and culture. It serves as a reminder of the long-standing traditions and customs that have shaped the lives of the people who have called this place home for generations.

 The largest area, known as Valadbaygi Region on the map, is in Salas-e Babajani, which includes several mountains, villages and protected areas, and national heritage sites. Salas-e Babajani is a county in the Kermanshah province of Iran and is one of the four counties in the Avroman region. The county comprises the Babajani, Qubadi, and Valadbaygi regions, with 108 districts. It shares borders with Sarpol-e Zahab and Dalahoo counties to the south, and Javanrud to the east, while also sharing a border with Iraq to the west.

One of the historical landmarks in Salas-e Babajani is the city of Derna, which has a history dating back several thousand years. The town was mentioned by Herodotus 2500 years ago as διà Δaρνɛων, while Ptolemy, the famous Greek philosopher, astronomer, and geographer, also mentioned the city centuries after Herodotus.

Salas-e Babajani is the birthplace of several notable people, such as Xana Qubadi, a Kurdish poet from the Jaf tribe who wrote in Gorani and belonged to the Hawrami (Avromani) school of poetry in the Ardalan principality. He lived in Derne, the capital of the Derteng, Hulwan, and Bajelan dynasties, in modern-day Salas-e Babajani county. Initially, he lived in Ardalan, but due to his translations of the Quran to Gorani, he had to flee to neighbouring Baban. His primary published work is Şîrîn û Xesrew (Shirin and Khasraw), written in 1740. Despite being an expert in Persian and Persian literature, he favoured using Kurdish, as indicated in one of his poems.

Herçen mewaçan: Farsî şekeren

Kurdî ce şeker bell şîrînteren

Yeqînen ce dewr dunyay pirr endêş

Herkes dillşaden we ziwan wêş

......

Although it's said that Persian is sweet as sugar,

But, for me, Kurdish is sweeter than sugar

Clearly, in this treacherous world,

Everyone is happy with his own beautiful mother tongue.

—Xana Qubadî: from Şîrîn û Xesrew

Paleolithic Era

The Paleolithic period in Iran is characterized by early human populations, including Neanderthals, who migrated into the region due to its geographic variation and resources. Iran is considered to be one of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia. The presence of early populations in Iran is evidenced by stone artifacts discovered from gravel deposits along various rivers, including the Kashafrud River Basin in the east of Iran, the Mashkid and Ladiz Rivers in the southeast, the Sefidrud River in the north, the Mahabad River in the northwest, and surface occurrences and isolated finds from the west and northwestern parts of the country.

The main known early human occupation sites in Iran include Kashafrud in Khorasan, Mashkid and Ladiz in Sistan, Shiwatoo in Kurdistan, Ganj Par in Gilan, Darband Cave in Gilan, Khaleseh in Zanjan, Tepe Gakia, and Pal Barik in Ilam—these sites date between one million years ago to 200,000 years ago. Mousterian stone tools made by Neanderthals have also been found in various parts of the country. The cultural remains of Neanderthal man mainly date back to the Middle Paleolithic period, which is located in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Kobeh, Kaldar, Bisetun, Qaleh Bozi, Tamtama, and Warwasi. In 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by CS Coon in Bisitun Cave.

Evidence for the Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods is known mainly from the Zagros region, in the caves of Kermanshah and Khoramabad, such as Yafteh Cave, and a few sites in the Alborz range and Central Iran. These periods are characterized by using more sophisticated tools, including blades and projectile points. In October 2018, a tooth belonging to a Neanderthal child was discovered in Iran for the first time. The tooth belongs to a six-year-old child found along with some rocky tools of the Middle Paleolithic period in the mountains of Kermanshah province.

The discovery of Neanderthal remains and stone tools in various parts of the country provides valuable insights into the behaviour and lifestyle of these early human populations. The evidence suggests that Iran was an important region for early human populations, including Neanderthals, and played a significant role in the human migration patterns toward southern and eastern Asia.

• Darakeh Valadbaygi Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Darakeh Valadbaygi in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. This historical site is registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10153.

• Benawchko Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in Javanrud, Ravansar district in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with the registration number 10142.

• Birdeh Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Birdeh in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. This historical site is registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10162.

• Jonoob-e Doab Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Doab in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. This historical site is registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10143.

• Cheshmeh Sefid-e Shabankareh Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Cheshmeh Sefid-e Shabankareh in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. This historical site is registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10135.

• The Gorgabi Oliya Hills belong to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and are located in Gorgabi Oliya village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10136.

• The Gomshtar-e Sofla Hills belong to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and are located in Gomshtar-e Sofla village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10163.

• The Seyyed Abbas Cemetery Hill belongs to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran. It is located in the village of Khorramabad-e Sofla in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10146.

Epipaleolithic

Iran was a part of the Near East during the Epipalaeolithic era, which occurred between 20,000 to 10,000 years ago. The climate during this period was cold and dry, and the geography was dominated by highlands and plateaus. The people of Iran during this time were primarily hunter-gatherers who relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for their subsistence. They lived in small, mobile groups and developed various tools and technologies to aid them in their daily lives, including the development of microliths, which were small, sharp stone tools used for hunting, fishing, and cutting plants. The people of Iran also devised new hunting techniques, such as using traps and snares, and began to domesticate dogs. Like other regions in the Near East, the people of Iran during this era also developed new social and cultural practices, including the creation of rock art and the development of burial customs. The Epipalaeolithic era was a period of significant change and innovation in Iran, as people adapted to their environment and developed new ways of living.

• Zard Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Zard Tappeh in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10141.

• Zarin Choga Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran up to the historical periods after Islam and is located in the village of Zarin Choga in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10122.

• The Kanipasha Hills belong to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and are located in Kanipasha village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites under number 10140.

• The Kani Khairan Hills date back to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran. They are located in the Kani Khairan village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10147.

• Hills 1 and 2 of Gorgabi West belong to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and are located in the Gorgabi Aliya village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10150.

Paleolithic Era

The Paleolithic period in Iran is characterized by early human populations, including Neanderthals, who migrated into the region due to its geographic variation and resources. Iran is considered to be one of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia. The presence of early populations in Iran is evidenced by stone artifacts discovered from gravel deposits along various rivers, including the Kashafrud River Basin in the east of Iran, the Mashkid and Ladiz Rivers in the southeast, the Sefidrud River in the north, the Mahabad River in the northwest, and surface occurrences and isolated finds from the west and northwestern parts of the country.

The main known early human occupation sites in Iran include Kashafrud in Khorasan, Mashkid and Ladiz in Sistan, Shiwatoo in Kurdistan, Ganj Par in Gilan, Darband Cave in Gilan, Khaleseh in Zanjan, Tepe Gakia, and Pal Barik in Ilam—these sites date between one million years ago to 200,000 years ago. Mousterian stone tools made by Neanderthals have also been found in various parts of the country. The cultural remains of Neanderthal man mainly date back to the Middle Paleolithic period, which is located in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Kobeh, Kaldar, Bisetun, Qaleh Bozi, Tamtama, and Warwasi. In 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by CS Coon in Bisitun Cave.

Evidence for the Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods is known mainly from the Zagros region, in the caves of Kermanshah and Khoramabad, such as Yafteh Cave, and a few sites in the Alborz range and Central Iran. These periods are characterized by using more sophisticated tools, including blades and projectile points. In October 2018, a tooth belonging to a Neanderthal child was discovered in Iran for the first time. The tooth belongs to a six-year-old child found along with some rocky tools of the Middle Paleolithic period in the mountains of Kermanshah province.

The discovery of Neanderthal remains and stone tools in various parts of the country provides valuable insights into the behaviour and lifestyle of these early human populations. The evidence suggests that Iran was an important region for early human populations, including Neanderthals, and played a significant role in the human migration patterns toward southern and eastern Asia. 

• Ra'is Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Ra'is in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills is registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10148.

• The northern Gomshater Oliya Hills are related to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran, located in the village of Gomshater Oliya in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10164.

• The Sadeghabad Hills is related to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and is located in Sadeghabad village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. Thee historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10131.

• The Qaleh Reza Hills belong to the prehistoric period and are located in the Qaleh Reza village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10139.

• The Qaleh Kohneh Kereh Hills belong to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran and are located in Qaleh Kohneh village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10124.

Neolithic Era

The Neolithic period in Iran began around 8000 BC with the settlement of hunter-gatherers in the Kermanshah area at Asiab, which was only seasonally inhabited. The inhabitants of Asiab were primarily hunters of wild goats and sheep, and they occasionally resorted to eating snail shells when their hunting activities were unsuccessful. The material culture of nearby settlements in the Zagros region, such as Tappeh Ganj Dareh and Tappeh Abdul Hosein, which date from 8,000 to 6,800 BC, does not include any pottery, leading to this period being called the "aceramic Neolithic." However, the oldest levels of Tappeh Guran, located in Luristan, as well as the sites of Ali Kosh and Chogha Sefid in the plain of Deh Luran, west of the Zagros Mountains, did begin to show evidence of animal husbandry, as flocks of sheep and herds of goats were kept for the first time.

Animal husbandry marked a significant shift in the orientation of the Neolithic inhabitants of Iran, leading to other innovations, particularly in house architecture. However, whether cereal cultivation occurred during this period has not been definitively discovered. While tools for harvesting and making cereal products exist, burned remnants of grain are extremely rare.

The Chalcolithic period in Iran, known as the Copper Age, began around 5500 BC, following the Neolithic period- agricultural communities such as Chogha Bonut, the earliest village in Susiana, formed in western Iran around the same time. This period saw the production of the earliest known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines at Ganj Dareh and Teppe Sarab, also in western Iran.

The southwestern part of Iran was part of the Fertile Crescent, where most of humanity's first significant crops were grown, and settlements such as Susa, where a settlement was possibly founded as early as 4395 cal BC, and Chogha Mish, dating back to 6800 BC, are located. Wine jars dating back 7,000 years have been discovered in the Zagros Mountains, and the ruins of 7,000-year-old settlements such as Tepe Sialk are further evidence of the agricultural practices of the time.

• Ban Chal-e Darakeh Hills belongs to the Neolithic period and is located in Javanrud, Ravansar district in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10133.

• Shomal-e Doab Hills belongs to the prehistoric era of Iran and is located in the village of Doab in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10138.

• The northern Moradabad Hills belong to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and are located in the Moradabad village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10156.

• The Kani Shirif Hills belong to the prehistoric era of ancient Iran. It is located in Kani Shirif village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10127.

• The Hasanabad Kareh Hill belongs to the prehistoric period of ancient Iran and is located in the village of Kareh Hasanabad in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10154.

• The Kilaanvar Sofla Hills belong to the Neolithic-Chalcolithic period and the Bronze Age. It is located in Kilaanvar Sofla village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10155.

• Mamnonan Oliya Hills belong to the Neolithic period and are located in the Mamnonan Oliya village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10149.

The Bronze Age

The Bronze Age in Iran, from around 3400 BC to 1000 BC, was a pivotal period marked by impressive cultural, economic, and technological growth. The Iranian Plateau was home to some of the earliest civilizations in the world, including the Kura-Araxes culture, which emerged in the fourth millennium BC and flourished until around 2000 BC. This culture extended beyond Iran and covered neighbouring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia. Numerous prehistoric sites scattered across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements during this period.

Susa, situated in southwestern Iran, is one of the oldest-known settlements in Iran and the world, dating back to at least 4395 BC according to C14 dating. Archaeologists believe that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, and it later became the capital of Elam, which emerged as a state in 4000 BC. Bronze Age Elam used writing from an early time, though the Proto-Elamite script has yet to be deciphered, and records from Sumer pertaining to Elam are limited.

The Jiroft culture, located in southeastern Iran's Kerman province, is a particularly intriguing archaeological site, filled with a plethora of artifacts dating back to the fourth millennium BC. These objects are distinctively decorated with engravings of animals, mythological figures, and architectural motifs and are made from various materials, including chlorite, copper, bronze, terracotta, and lapis lazuli. Recent excavations at the sites have led to the discovery of the world's earliest inscription, which predates Mesopotamian inscriptions.

During the Early Bronze Age in the Near East, urbanization into organized city-states rose, and the invention of writing emerged during the Uruk period. The rise of writing had significant implications for recording economic, administrative, and religious transactions and literature, which helped preserve history and culture. While Bronze Age Elam utilized writing from an early time, the Proto-Elamite script still needs to be completed, and records from Sumer related to Elam are limited.

• Benawch Hills belongs to the Bronze Age and is located in the village of Benawch in Javanrud, Ravansar district in Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10129.

• Khanielah Hills belongs to the Iron Age and is located in the village of Khanielahin Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10160.

• The Lori Hills are related to the Iron Age and are located in the Tappeh Lori village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10145.

• Khorramabad-e Sofla Hills belongs to the Bronze Age and is located in the village of Khorramabad-e Sofla in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10152.

• Karim Hills belongs to the Median Elamite period and is located in the village of Deh Karim in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10137.

• Shargh-e Ja Jan Hills belongs to the Bronze Age and is located in the village of Jan Jan in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10125.

• Shomal-e Amrabad Hills belong to the Bronze Age and is located in the village of Amrabad in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These historical hills are registered as one of the national heritage sites of Iran with registration number 10158.

• The Shoor Bolagh Hills dates back to the Parthian period and is located in Shoor Bolagh village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10123.

• The Kazazi Hills belong to the Elamite-Median period and are located in Kazazi village, in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as a national heritage site of Iran with registration number 10144.

• The Kooik Hills belong to the ancient Mesopotamian period - the 4th millennium BCE and are located in the Kooik village in Javanrud, Ravansar district, in the Valadbaygi Region. These hills are registered as one of Iran's national heritage sites with registration number 10126.

Sumer

Sumer was a civilization that emerged in the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) around 4000 BCE. It is considered one of the earliest civilizations in human history, and its influence can still be felt in modern times.

Sumer was significant because it was a highly advanced civilization that made significant contributions to the development of human culture and society. The Sumerians were known for their innovations in agriculture, the invention of the wheel, and the development of writing, which enabled the recording of history and the creation of literature. They also built monumental architecture, such as the ziggurats, and developed a complex religious and political system.

The origins of Sumer are not entirely clear, but it is believed that the Sumerians were migrants who moved into the region from the north or east. They established city-states, such as Uruk, Ur, and Nippur, which were the centers of their civilization. Each city-state had its own ruler, and they often competed and fought with one another.

Sumer was located in the fertile crescent, which provided ample resources for the growth of agriculture and the development of complex societies. The Sumerians developed a system of irrigation that enabled them to grow crops in the dry and arid region. They also developed a system of trade that enabled them to exchange goods with other regions.

Sumerian culture and language had a significant impact on the development of the region and the world. Many of their inventions and innovations were adopted and improved upon by later civilizations, and their language was used as a basis for the development of other languages, such as Akkadian.

Quadruple Kingdoms

The region of modern-day Iran, which the Elamites later occupied, has a rich and diverse history, with various ancient cultures and peoples inhabiting the area before them. The first recorded culture in the area were the Elamites, who established the Elamite Empire around 2700 BCE. Before the Elamites, the region was inhabited by various ancient cultures and peoples, each leaving their mark on the region's history and culture.

The Mannaeans 

The Mannaeans were an ancient culture that inhabited the northwestern part of present-day Iran, in the region known as Azerbaijan. They were believed to have established a confederacy of small kingdoms around 1500 BCE, and their civilization flourished until the Assyrians conquered them in the 9th century BCE.

The Mannaeans are known to be highly sophisticated and culturally rich. They had a writing system, and their language was related to Hurrian. They were also skilled in metalworking, with particular expertise in bronze casting. The Mannaeans are believed to have traded extensively with neighbouring cultures, including the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Persians.

The exact origins of the Mannaeans are unknown, but they are believed to have emerged from the region's indigenous peoples. Some scholars think they may have been related to the Urartians, a neighbouring culture in the Caucasus region.

The Mannaeans played an essential role in the region's history, serving as a buffer zone between the Assyrians to the west and the Persians to the east. They are also believed to have played a role in the downfall of the Assyrian Empire, as they provided refuge to the Babylonians fleeing from the Assyrian armies.

The Mannaeans are known to be highly religious, with a complex pantheon of deities. They practiced a form of nature worship, with a particular reverence for the mountains and the sun. They also had a rich tradition of mythology and folklore, which has been preserved in several surviving texts.

Despite the significance of the Mannaeans in the history and culture of the region, more is needed to know about their civilization. Many of their writings and artifacts have been lost over time, and much of what is known about them comes from the reports of neighbouring cultures. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Mannaeans is an integral part of the region's cultural heritage, and their influence can still be felt in modern-day Iran's art, literature, and religion.

The Kassites

The Kassites were an ancient people who established the Kassite Dynasty in Mesopotamia, ruling over a vast area from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. They originated from the Zagros Mountains in present-day Iran and migrated to the southern regions of Mesopotamia, where they established their kingdom.

The origins of the Kassites are partially transparent, but they are believed to have been a non-Semitic people who spoke an Indo-European language. Their early history needs to be better understood, with few written sources available from their time. It is believed that they were initially nomadic people who migrated to Mesopotamia in search of new pastures for their herds.

The Kassites established their kingdom in the 18th century BCE, quickly becoming a dominant regional power. They established their capital at Dur-Kurigalzu and expanded their territory through diplomacy and military conquest. They ruled over a large area encompassed modern-day Iraq, parts of Iran, and parts of Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar.

A strong emphasis on law and order characterized the Kassite Dynasty. They established a legal system based on the principle of lex talionis, or an eye for an eye, which was later adopted by other civilizations in the region. They also built a solid administrative system based on a hierarchy of officials and governors.

The Kassites were known for their horse breeding and horsemanship skill, which gave them an advantage in warfare. They were able to field large armies of cavalry that were capable of moving quickly and effectively. They were also known for their skilled archers and their use of chariots in battle.

The Kassite Dynasty declined in the 12th century BCE, and the Elamites eventually conquered their kingdom. Their legacy, however, continued to influence the region, and many of their cultural and administrative practices were adopted by the Babylonians and other civilizations in the area.

The Gutians

The Gutians were semi-nomadic people who lived in Mesopotamia in the early Bronze Age, around 2100 BCE. They are known for establishing a short-lived Gutian Dynasty before being overthrown by the Akkadian Empire. The Gutians were believed to have originated from the Zagros Mountains, which spanned the western parts of present-day Iran and eastern Iraq.

The Gutians were a warrior society, and their military was feared throughout the region. They were known for their archery skills and use of chariots in battle. The Gutians are also believed to have been the first to introduce the composite bow, a weapon that would become a staple of the armies of the ancient Near East.

The Gutian Dynasty was established around 2144 BCE, following a period of political instability in the region. They ruled for about 100 years before being overthrown by the Akkadian Empire under the Sargon of Akkad. The Gutian Dynasty was characterized by its military strength and its establishment of a centralized government, which was a departure from the decentralized tribal structures that had been prevalent in the region.

The Gutians left behind few written records, and much of what is known about them comes from the writings of their conquerors and neighbouring cultures. Despite their short-lived rule, the Gutians left an indelible mark on the history and culture of the region, influencing the development of warfare and government structures in the ancient Near East.'

The Lullubi 

The Lullubi people were an ancient group of tribes that inhabited the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. They are believed to have established several small kingdoms around 2400 BCE, which lasted until the Assyrian conquest of the region in the 9th century BCE. The Lullubi were known for their metalworking skill and mastery of iron technology, which allowed them to develop advanced weaponry and tools.

The Lullubi were organized into a confederation of tribes, with each Tribe having its king. They were known to be fierce warriors and frequently engaged in battles with neighbouring peoples, including the Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. The Lullubi were also skilled in agriculture and animal husbandry and able to cultivate crops in the mountainous terrain of their homeland.

The Lullubi are mentioned in numerous ancient texts and inscriptions, including the Sumerian King List and the annals of the Assyrian king Sargon II. The Assyrians ultimately conquered the Lullubi in the 9th century BCE, ending their rule in the region.

The Lullubi are considered one of the earliest known groups to inhabit the Zagros Mountains, and their culture and technology influenced the development of other ancient civilizations in the region. Today, the Lullubi are remembered as essential to Iran's ancient history and culture.

Throughout this period, the region was also influenced by Mesopotamia and the Persian plateau civilizations. The Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians all shaped the region's history and culture. The area was an important crossroads for trade and commerce, making it a strategic location for these early civilizations.

Elamites

The Elamite Empire, which emerged in the region after the fall of the Mannaeans, Kassites, Gutians, and Lullubi, is one of the most significant and long-lasting empires in the history of Iran. With its capital in Susa, the Elamites established their dominance over much of what is now modern-day Iran and parts of Iraq and the Persian Gulf region. The Elamite Empire was a highly centralized and sophisticated state with a well-developed system of governance, a powerful military, and a thriving economy based on trade and agriculture.

The Elamites were known for their skill in metalworking, ceramics, and other crafts, as well as their extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management. They were also renowned for their architecture, including the construction of large, elaborate palaces and temples, such as the Chogha Zanbil ziggurat, considered one of the most impressive ancient structures in the world.

During the reign of the Elamite Empire in Iran, the Kermanshah and Avroman regions played a crucial role in the empire's administration, agriculture, and trade. The Elamites were known for their advanced civilization, and their influence extended over much of western and southern Iran, including the Kermanshah and Avroman regions. The region's infrastructure was transformed during the Elamite era by constructing massive palaces, temples, and irrigation systems, which allowed for the growth of agriculture and trade. The Elamite Empire was known for its intricate artwork and metallurgy, producing finely crafted gold, silver, and bronze objects.

In the Kermanshah and Avroman regions, there is evidence of Elamite influence in cuneiform inscriptions, which the Elamites used as a form of written communication. Several of these inscriptions have been discovered in the region, including at the ancient site of Godin Tepe, near Kangavar.

During this time, the region was controlled by a local Elamite governor or vassal king, who oversaw the region's affairs on behalf of the Elamite Empire's central government. The governor would have been responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining order, and enforcing Elamite law in the region. This form of governance was known as a vassal state. The local ruler was allowed to maintain some level of autonomy in exchange for tribute and allegiance to the central government.

The first nations of the Zagros and Avroman regions were integral to the Elamite Empire's success and significantly developed the region's rich cultural and historical heritage. The region's lasting impact during the Elamite era can still be seen in significant artifacts and inscriptions.

The Elamite Empire was one of the earliest civilizations to implement the vassal state system of governance, a practice that became common throughout the ancient world. This system allowed the empire to expand territory and maintain control over a vast and diverse region while minimizing the need for a large standing army.

Under this system, local rulers were chosen based on their loyalty and ability to maintain order and collect taxes in their regions. These rulers were known as vassal kings and were responsible for upholding the Elamite Empire's laws and customs in their territories.

The vassal kings were allowed to maintain some level of autonomy in exchange for their allegiance and tribute to the central government. This system allowed for a degree of flexibility and adaptability in governance, as local rulers were often better suited to handle their regions' specific needs and challenges than a centralized government.

The Elamite Empire's vassal state system was a critical factor in its success, allowing it to maintain control over a vast territory for centuries. The system remained in place until the empire's collapse in 539 BCE, and its influence can still be seen in the governance practices of many modern states.

The vassal state system used by the Elamite Empire can be classified as a decentralized governance model, where power and decision-making are distributed among different local rulers or vassals. In this system, local rulers were allowed to maintain some level of autonomy, which gave them greater control over their territories while also being required to pay tribute and swear allegiance to the central government.

In contrast, a centralized governance model concentrates power and decision-making within a central authority, such as a monarch or central government. In this model, power is typically more centralized and hierarchical, with greater control over the actions of regional or local authorities.

While the vassal state system used by the Elamite Empire can be considered a form of decentralized governance, it was not a complete absence of centralized control. The central government of the Elamite Empire maintained the power to levy taxes, enforce laws, and collect tribute from local rulers. Moreover, local rulers were required to provide troops and resources to the central government, which allowed the Elamite Empire to maintain a strong military and expand its territory.

This system allowed for decentralized governance and autonomy in Kermanshah and Avroman. In Kermanshah, the vassal system was structured under the confederation model, which later shaped the Ellipi Confederation.

The Ellipi Confederation was a regional power in western Iran around the same time as the Elamite Empire. The confederation governance model was significant in the formation and development of the Ellipi Confederation. The Confederation was made up of different tribes that had a shared cultural and linguistic heritage. The tribes worked together to establish a decentralized governance structure that allowed for high autonomy.

The Ellipi Confederation's governance model was decentralized, incorporating many cultures and beliefs of the region, and was under the Elamite Empire's vassal system. As a result, the Confederation had some level of autonomy and was a regional power in the western part of Iran. The Ellipi Confederation was an economic power and played a significant role in maintaining peace in the region.

While the relationship between the Elamites and the Ellipi Confederation needs more research, there is evidence that the two groups shared a similar culture and language. As a result, the relationship between the two may have been complex and varied depending on the political and economic circumstances of the time.

The Elamites played a significant role in Iran's history, particularly in the western and southwestern parts of the country. As one of the earliest civilizations in the region, they developed advanced techniques in metallurgy, agriculture, and irrigation, and they left behind a rich legacy of art, architecture, and written language. The Elamite Empire also served as a major regional power in the ancient Near East and established diplomatic and trade relations with other civilizations in the region, such as the Babylonians and Assyrians. Their influence on the region's culture and history can still be seen today in the significant archaeological sites and artifacts that have been discovered throughout Iran:

1. Chogha Zanbil: Built around 1250 BCE, Chogha Zanbil is an ancient Elamite complex located in Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran. It is a ziggurat, a type of stepped pyramid that was used as a religious center for the Elamite Empire. Chogha Zanbil is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is considered one of the most important examples of Elamite architecture and engineering.

2. Susa: Susa was an ancient Elamite city that served as the capital of the Elamite Empire. It is located in present-day Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran. Susa was a major center of trade and commerce, and it is believed to have been one of the oldest cities in the world. The city has been the site of numerous excavations, and several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered there, including the Code of Hammurabi.

3. Haft Tappeh: Haft Tappeh is an ancient Elamite site located in Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran. It was an important center of agriculture and trade during the Elamite era and is believed to have been a major source of food for the empire. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Haft Tappeh, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

4. Godin Tepe: Godin Tepe is an ancient Elamite site located in Kermanshah province in western Iran. It was a major center of trade and commerce during the Elamite era and is believed to have been an important stop on the ancient trade routes that crisscrossed the region. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Godin Tepe, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

5. Shahr-e Sukhteh: Shahr-e Sukhteh is an ancient Elamite site located in Sistan and Baluchistan province in southeastern Iran. It was a major center of trade and commerce during the Elamite era and is believed to have been one of the largest cities in the world at the time. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Shahr-e Sukhteh, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

6. Tepe Sialk: Tepe Sialk is an ancient Elamite site located in Isfahan province in central Iran. It was a major center of trade and commerce during the Elamite era and is believed to have been one of the largest cities in the world at the time. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Tepe Sialk, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

7. Tepe Yahya: Tepe Yahya is an ancient Elamite site located in Kerman province in southeastern Iran. It was a major center of trade and commerce during the Elamite era and is believed to have been a major source of minerals for the empire. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Tepe Yahya, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

8. Konar Sandal: Konar Sandal is an ancient Elamite site located in Kerman province in southeastern Iran. It was a major center of trade and commerce during the Elamite era and is believed to have been a major source of minerals for the empire. Several important Elamite artifacts have been discovered at Konar Sandal, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

The Early Iron Age

The Early Iron Age in Iran was a significant period marked by the arrival of various tribes on the Iranian Plateau, leading to the emergence of powerful kingdoms and empires. The Neo-Assyrian Empire's rise brought tangible records of the incursions from the Iranian Plateau. These records suggest that tribes began migrating to the Iranian Plateau from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as early as the 20th century BC.

As Iranians began arriving on the Iranian Plateau, the Elamites were forced to relinquish one area of their empire after another and take refuge in Elam, Khuzestan, and the nearby regions. The southern Iranians were likely intermixed with the Elamite peoples living on the Plateau, according to Bahman Firuzmandi. By the mid-first millennium BC, the Medes, Persians, and Parthians had populated the Iranian Plateau. They remained under Assyrian domination like the rest of the Near East until the rise of the Medes.

The Medes, who lived in northwestern Iran, rose to power in the seventh century BC and founded the first Iranian empire. They were followed by the Persians, who established the Achaemenid Empire in 550 BC, which would later become the largest empire in ancient history. The Achaemenids were notable for their centralized governance, impressive public works, and adoption of various cultural and religious practices. Their empire stretched from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River, including Egypt, the Levant, and much of Central Asia.

The Parthians, who emerged in the third century BC, were known for their military prowess and extensive trade networks. They established a powerful empire extending from the Euphrates River to the Indus River, including parts of Central Asia and the Caucasus. The Parthians also played a crucial role in the development of the Silk Road, which facilitated trade between the Roman Empire and China.

During the Early Iron Age, parts of what is now Iranian Azerbaijan were incorporated into Urartu, a kingdom that emerged in the ninth century BC and lasted until the sixth century BC. Urartu was located in the eastern Anatolian region, and its influence extended to the Iranian Plateau, where it significantly impacted the region's cultural and linguistic development.

Urartu

Urartu was an ancient kingdom that emerged in the ninth century BC and was located in the eastern Anatolian region, encompassing parts of modern-day Turkey, Armenia, and Iran. The kingdom was established by the Nairi people, who had been living in the area for centuries.

Urartu's rise to power was aided by the decline of the Assyrian Empire, which had previously exerted significant influence in the region. The kingdom quickly became a mighty political and economic power, with its impact extending beyond Anatolia and into the Iranian Plateau. Urartu's capital city, Tushpa, was located near Lake Van and was a crucial center of trade and commerce.

Urartu was known for its impressive military might, and its army was composed of well-trained soldiers equipped with advanced weaponry, such as iron swords and spears. The kingdom's military prowess was reflected in the construction of fortified cities and citadels designed to withstand sieges and attacks.

Urartu was also notable for its art and architecture, which blended elements of Assyrian, Hittite, and local cultures. The kingdom's temples, palaces, and other monumental buildings were adorned with intricate carvings and reliefs depicting scenes from daily life, religious rituals, and mythological tales.

Despite its significant achievements, Urartu faced numerous challenges, including attacks from neighbouring tribes, internal political strife, and natural disasters. The kingdom declined in the sixth century BC, gradually absorbing its territories into neighbouring empires.

Today, the legacy of Urartu is evident in the many archaeological sites and artifacts discovered in the region. These remains offer valuable insights into the culture, economy, and political landscape of ancient Anatolia and the Iranian Plateau, and continue to inspire scholars and researchers worldwide.

The Ellipi Kingdom

The Ellipi Kingdom was an ancient civilization in the western Zagros mountain range, with its capital city of Nisaba (Kermanshah). The kingdom was strategically located, with Babylon to the west, the Median land to the northeast, the Mannaeans to the north, and the Elamite civilization to the south. The remnants of the Gothic and Cassite peoples were also present in the kingdom's north.

According to historical evidence, the Ellipi Kingdom prospered due to a commercial road around it between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE. Between the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the kingdom fell under the rule of the Aryans. King Daltas, the last leader of the Ellipi confederation, paid tribute to Sargon II from 714 BCE. After the death of King Daltas, his son Nibeh was supported by the Elamites.

In 719 BCE, Sutel, the son of Hubo and father of Daltas, died, and the tribal chiefs of the Ellipi confederation decided to take charge of the territory's administration for three years. After a year of mourning for his father, Daltas took the leadership of the Tribe. In 717 BCE, the council of the Ellipi tribal chiefs decided to change the government from the Confederation to a chosen monarchy, with the difference that they would only select the first king themselves. During their negotiations, the chief of the Ellipi tribe, Daltas, was chosen as the king. In the following spring of 716 BCE, Taltal was crowned in Nisaba, and after 139 years, the Ellipi confederation changed to the Ellipi Kingdom. However, both kings were the children of the same tribal leaders of the Ellipi confederation.

The Ellipi Kingdom's establishment shifted from a confederation governance model to a monarchy model. The kingdom's decentralized governance allowed for a significant level of autonomy, and the region incorporated various cultures and beliefs, including those of the Elamites, Aryans, and Mannaeans. The kingdom's strategic location along trade routes and its relationship with the Elamite Empire allowed significant economic growth and cultural exchange.

The Ellipi Kingdom's legacy can still be seen in the region's rich cultural and historical heritage, home to several significant artifacts and historical sites, including the Bisotun inscription, Godin Tapeh, Taq-e Bostan, and Anahita Temple. The kingdom's influence on the region's cultural and political development highlights the importance of understanding the region's complex and diverse history. 

The Ellipi Kingdom's decline began when the Assyrian Empire conquered it in the late 7th century BCE. Despite paying tribute to the Assyrians, the Ellipi people faced a brutal occupation for several years. In 645 BCE, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal destroyed the city of Nisaba (Kermanshah), the Ellipi Kingdom's capital city, and ended the reign of the local kings.

The Assyrians replaced the local Ellipi kings with governors who ruled on behalf of the Assyrian Empire, effectively ending the Ellipi confederation's autonomy and independence. The region became part of the vast Assyrian Empire and was subject to its rule and governance.

The fall of the Ellipi confederation marked the end of a significant period of history in the western Zagros mountain range. While the Ellipi people's culture and legacy continued to influence the region, their kingdom's fall marked a significant shift in its political and social landscape. The Assyrians and subsequent empires would come to dominate the region for centuries.

There are several inscriptions from the Assyrian invasion of the region during the Ellipi Confederation. The Assyrians were a powerful empire that expanded their territory into parts of modern-day Iran, including the region of Kermanshahan and the surrounding areas. They left many inscriptions and reliefs documenting their conquests and military campaigns in the region.

One of the most famous inscriptions from this period is the Annals of Ashurbanipal, which details the Assyrian king's campaigns against Elamites and the Ellipi Confederation and other neighbouring powers. The inscription describes the defeat of Humban-Tahrah and the Assyrian capture of the city of Nisaba, the capital of the Ellipi Kingdom.

Other Assyrian inscriptions from this period include the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Rassam Cylinder of Ashurbanipal. These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the region's Assyrian conquests and their impact on the local populations.

There are several pieces of evidence from the Assyrian invasion of the region as a powerful empire that expanded their territory into parts of modern-day Iran, including the region of Kermanshahan and the surrounding areas. They left many inscriptions and reliefs documenting their conquests and military campaigns in the region.

One of the most famous inscriptions from this period is the Annals of Ashurbanipal, which details the Assyrian king's campaigns against the r neighbouring powers. The inscription describes the defeat of the Ellipi king Humban-Tahrah and the Assyrian capture of the city of Nisaba, the capital of the Ellipi Kingdom.

Other Assyrian inscriptions from this period include the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Rassam Cylinder of Ashurbanipal. These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the region's Assyrian conquests and their impact on the local populations.

Assyrians

Assyria was an ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq, eastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey). The kingdom emerged as a significant power in the region in the 24th century BCE and lasted until the late 7th century BCE. The Assyrians were known for their mighty army, warfare skills, and military tactics, which enabled them to expand their kingdom and conquer many territories.

Under the leadership of King Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to expand rapidly, conquering lands from Egypt to Iran. The Assyrians were known for brutality towards their enemies, often using terror tactics to keep their conquered lands under control. They were also responsible for the forced deportation of many peoples from their homelands, a common practice of the time.

The Assyrian Empire was divided into provinces governed by local rulers or governors appointed by the king. The Assyrians were also skilled in engineering and architecture, and their capital city of Nineveh was one of the largest and most advanced cities of its time.

In western Iran, the Assyrians attacked and conquered several cities, including Susa, Babylon, and Ekbatana. They also controlled many smaller cities and territories in the region, including parts of present-day Kermanshah and Kurdistan provinces. The Assyrian rule lasted for several centuries, and their influence can still be seen in the region's architecture, culture, and language.

The Assyrians left a wealth of artifacts and archaeological sites that provide valuable insights into the empire's culture, art, and military prowess. These artifacts and sites are a testament to the Assyrian Empire's lasting impact on ancient Iran and its people:

1. The ruins of the city of Dur-Sharrukin (modern-day Khorsabad) in the Erbil Governorate of Iraqi Kurdistan. The city was built by the Assyrian king Sargon II in the 8th century BCE and served as his capital.

2. The Palace of Sennacherib in the city of Nineveh in northern Iraq. The palace was constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in the 7th century BCE and was one of the largest and most opulent buildings of its time.

3. The Nergal Gate at the ancient city of Nineveh. The gate was one of the main entrances to the city and was adorned with intricate carvings depicting mythological creatures and scenes of battle.

4. The Balawat Gates, a pair of bronze and cedarwood gates erected in Imgur-Enlil (modern-day Iraq) by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in the 9th century BCE. The gates are adorned with detailed carvings and inscriptions that provide valuable information about the culture and history of the Assyrian Empire.

5. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a tall, black stone monument that was erected in the city of Calah (modern-day Nimrud) in the 9th century BCE. The obelisk features intricate carvings depicting scenes of tribute and homage being paid to the Assyrian king by various nations and peoples.

6. The Palace of Ashurbanipal in the city of Nineveh. The palace was constructed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in the 7th century BCE and was home to one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world.

These artifacts and sites offer valuable insights into the culture, politics, and society of the Assyrian Empire, and their preservation and study are crucial to understanding the region's history.

The Assyrian Empire declined and eventually fell in the 7th century BCE due to a combination of factors. One factor was internal instability, with frequent changes of rulers and power struggles. This weakened the empire's ability to defend itself against external threats. Additionally, the empire's expansion had led to overextension and the burden of maintaining a large army and bureaucracy. This placed a strain on the empire's resources and economy.

External threats also played a role in the fall of the Assyrian Empire. The Babylonians and Medes, previously subject to Assyrian rule, rose in rebellion and formed a coalition to overthrow the empire. In 612 BCE, they successfully besieged and captured the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, marking the end of the Assyrian Empire.

The fall of the Assyrian Empire had significant consequences for the region, leading to a power vacuum that was eventually filled by the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire under King Nebuchadnezzar II. This new empire would go on to conquer much of the Near East, including the region that is now modern-day Iran.